Readers,

A number of undergraduate students did independent study work with me on the topic of behavior analysis in sports. They helped develop this document “Behavior Analysis in Sports – An Introduction to a Work in Progress”. The work continues to this day and we hope you find the material, as it currently exists, useful and interesting.

Jerry Mertens

Behavioral analysis is at work in all aspect of our lives; in this material we are looking at one category of life, behavior analysis in sports. We organized this work so one can look topics up by the various principles of behavior or by specific sports related behavior.

Also, we have included a reference list of the articles and books cited. The page(s) of the specific reference is listed with the write up. There is also a list of some additional readings that we haven’t incorporated yet.

We have cited many examples from the Martin (2007) and Malott (2008) texts because students working with Mertens have access to these texts. Since the Malott text is used by the classes that use this project, we will use the chapter sequence of behavior principles used by that text (Malott, 2008). The chapter number where the behavioral principle is located in the Malott text is cited before each item. The definitions are in boxes in style to that of the Malott (2008) text. Here is how the web site is laid out:

I. Principles of Behavior
II. Sports Behavior Index
III. Toughness Question
IV. The “Dark” or Negative Side of Sports
V. References

It is worth noting that if the delivery of a reinforcer is delayed by more than 60 seconds then there is an analog to a contingency at work (see Malott, 2008, ch. 22-24). Also, Malott (2008) states that the addition of a deadline before which the desired behavior must occur in order to produce a reinforcer does create an analog-to-avoidance contingency. That is, avoiding the loss of a reinforcer (See Ch. 22-24 of Malott, 2008).

I. SPORTS – PRINCIPLES OF BEHAVIOR
CHAPTERS 1 & 2: The Reinforcer & Positive Reinforcement
Definition: CONCEPT

Reinforcement contingency (positive reinforcement)
• The immediate,
• response-contingent
• presentation of
• a reinforcer
• resulting in an increased frequency of that response.

(Malott, p. 14)

Ch. 1 & 2. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT – GOLF – (GRIP ON CLUB)
A golfer uses a specific style of gripping their club when the shot is taken. The shot is a good shot, i.e. the shot goes where it should go. The golfer then continues to use the new style of grip and the same swing to take the next shot. (Consideration must be given to the relationship among the club selection, the grip, the swing, and other mechanics of the stroke.)

Martin, G. (2007) p. 18

Ch. 1 & 2. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT – VARIETY OF SPORTS
Basketball pass resulting in an assist, pass resulting in a touchdown, visual feedback of having a defense ‘fall’ for a fake, getting a good ‘jump on the ball’, catching an opponent giving away their next move, your muscles feeding back matching-to-sample reinforcers: e.g. the bowler’s feedback that the thrown ball is like that from previous strikes, a field goal kicker has the feedback from good or poor contact with the ball.

OUR EXAMPLES

Ch. 1 & 2. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT – BASKETBALL
During practice, a basketball player makes a good play and receives immediate verbal praise from the coach.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 1 & 2. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT – FOOTBALL
During a home football game a running back makes a long run for a large gain in yardage. This results in reinforcing comments, high fives, etc. from teammates as soon as the play is over.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 1 & 2. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT – HOCKEY
A player makes a big hit on the opponent during a home game and the opponent falls to the ice. The crowd gets on their feet, claps, and cheers loudly.

OUR EXAMPLE

CHAPTER 3: Escape

Definition: CONCEPT

Escape contingency (negative reinforcement)
• The immediate,
• response-contingent
• removal of
• an aversive stimulus
• resulting in an increased frequency of that response.

(Malott p. 35)

Ch. 3. ESCAPE – BASKETBALL – (DEFENSIVE EFFORT TO GET THE CALL FROM THE REFEREE)
The defensive player acting as if he or she was standing still for a long count and then falling back after taking a “light bump” and thereby gaining the call of the official. He or she is trying to escape the blocking foul, and in turn pick up a charge foul on the opponent.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 3. ESCAPE – BASKETBALL – (SCREEN)
A basketball player escapes the good defense guarding him/her by running a defensive player into a legal screen set by a teammate. The screen may be set to escape the close guarding by the defensive player, thus freeing the offensive player for a good look and/or clear lane to the basket.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 3. ESCAPE – BOXING & WRESTLING (ROLLING WITH THE PUNCH)
In boxing and pro wrestling, rolling with the punch escapes some of the impact of the blow.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 3. ESCAPE – BOXING & WRESTLING – (THROW ABSOBTION)
When a person is being thrown in jujitsu or pro wrestling, the person being thrown absorbs the impact by attempting to hit the mat with the most of their body at the same time.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 3. ESCAPE – FOOOTBALL – (KEEP LEGS MOVING)
By keeping their legs moving, a running back escapes the sloppy tackle and continues running.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 3. ESCAPE – FOOTBALL – (GOING TO THE WEAKEST POINT)
A running back escapes the brunt of the tackle by going to the least resistant or weakest directional hit of a tackle.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 3. ESCAPE – FOOTBALL – (PRE-SNAP DEFENSIVE AUDIBLE)
A defensive player makes a pre-snap call to escape the aversive situation offered by the pre-snap offensive position of the players. A player sees that they will get beat in one-on-one coverage by a talented wide receiver.

OUR EXAMPLE
Ch. 3. ESCAPE – FOOTBALL – (OFFENSIVE VS. DEFENSIVE PLAYER)
The offensive wide receiver escapes the coverage of the defensive back so that he can be open as a possible target for a pass from the quarterback. The defensive back is focused on maintaining coverage to escape the criticism and consequences that follow if the person to be covered would catch a pass. (We cover this again in the avoidance unit.)

OUR EXAMPLE

CHAPTER 4: Punishment

Definition: CONCEPT

Punishment contingency (positive punishment)
• The immediate,
• response-contingent
• presentation of
• an aversive condition
• resulting in a decreased frequency of that response.

(Malott, p. 58)

Ch. 4. PUNISHMENT – BASKETBALL – (STOLEN BALL)
S/he was dribbling the ball high and carelessly. The defensive player then stole the ball.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 4. PUNISHMENT – FOOTBALL – (NOT FOLLOWNG BLOCKERS = LOSS OF YARDS)
The offensive player was handed the ball and started to run; however s/he falls too far behind the blocker. The defensive player ran to the same side as the running back, shutting the gap, and s/he ended up losing 5 yards. If s/he had followed their blockers that were leading the play more closely, s/he would have gained yards.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 4. PUNISHMENT – GOLF – (TIGER WOOD’S PUTT)
In Tigers’ words, “It (see following description) is a great drill to keep you paying attention. You’d be surprised how sharp your focus becomes when the consequence of missing is starting over.” Tiger Woods practices his putts by finding a level spot three feet from the hole. He places the ball and then puts two tees just slightly wider than his putter on both sides of the ball. He then takes the putt with his right arm only and after he makes 12 putts in a row he switches to both hands. When he makes six putts with both hands he then goes back to 12 putts with his right hand. He continues this sequence until he has made 100 putts in a row. If he misses just one putt he starts the whole process over.

Martin, G. (2007) p. 37

Ch. 4. PUNISHMENT – HOCKEY – (LOSING THE PUCK)
The offensive player skated up the ice with the puck and a defensive player skates up to him/her. The offensive player was handling the puck very carelessly and ended up losing it to the defensive player because of bad stick handling.

OUR EXAMPLE

CHAPTER 5: Penalty

Definition: CONCEPT

Penalty contingency (negative punishment)
• The immediate,
• response-contingent
• removal of
• a reinforcer
• resulting in a decreased frequency of that response.

(Malott, p. 83)

Definition: CONCEPT

Time-out contingency (type of penalty)
• The immediate,
• response-contingent
• removal of
• access to a reinforcer
• resulting in a decreased frequency of that response.

(Malott, p. 88)

The amount of time that a behavior is in a timeout will vary according to other environmental events such as the decision of the coach, time until the next opportunity to perform, or the rules of the sport. On Malott (2008) pp. 97-98, there is a discussion on the differences between timeout and response cost that includes a reference to their usage in sports.

Ch. 5. PENALTY- TIMEOUT- BASEBALL – (STRIKING OUT)
The batter is out after the third strike and has to go back to the bench and wait for their next turn at bat.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 5. PENALTY- TIMEOUT- BASEKTBALL – (FOULING OUT)
A defensive player has the maximum amount of fouls allowed to still be able to stay in the game. The defensive player goes for the steal and hits the other player’s hand. The ref calls another foul on the defensive player and s/he has to sit out for the rest of the game. This timeout is even longer than the one in baseball because s/he is done playing until the next game and is also much longer than the amount of timeout time usually employed with applied behavior analysis.

Malott, R. (2008)

Ch. 5. PENALTY- TIME OUT- VARIOUS SPORTS – (POOR PLAY)
A coach makes a player sit on the bench for a bad play, while the rest of the team scrimmages or while the game continues.

Martin, G. (2007) p. 31

Ch. 5. PENALTY- TIMEOUT- HOCKEY- (SITTING IN THE PENALTY BOX)
In the Malott text, he states “a variation on this (penalty) theme has been used in sports.” The best example is hockey. The ref calls a rule violation and orders the player to go to the penalty box. That player will have to sit in the penalty box for a predetermined number of minutes.

Malott, R. (2008)

CHAPTER 6: Extinction

Definition: PRINCIPLE

Extinction
• Stopping the reinforcement or escape contingency
• for a previously reinforced response
• causes the response frequency to decrease.

(Malott, p. 103)

Ch. 6 EXTINCTION – QUITTING A SPORT – (VARIOUS LEVELS)
The player may quit or choose to retire from their sport due to the fact that they no longer meet performance standards and no longer receive the reinforcement needed to continue to endure through the strenuous work and time commitment that coincides with playing their competitive sport.

Ch. 6 EXTINCTION – BASEBALL – FASTBALL PITCHER – (LOSS OF FASTBALL SPEED)
One reason why a young pitcher in baseball may be so effective is due to the speed at which s/he delivers their fastball. As that pitcher loses the speed and effectiveness at which s/he throws due to aging, injury, familiarity or pitching style, etc., s/he needs to learn new pitches so that s/he can continue to operate as an effective pitcher.

OUR EXAMPLE

CHAPTER 7: Differential Reinforcement

Definition: PROCEDURE

The differential-reinforcement procedure
• Reinforcing one set of responses
• and withholding reinforcement for another set of responses.

(Malott, p. 130)

Ch. 7. DIFFERERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT – GOLF – (SWING)
Differential reinforcement produces proper swings in golf. A beginning golfer may hit the ball with a variety of swings, but only a particular class of swings produces reinforcers of a “good” hit, i.e. the ball goes where the player attempted to hit the ball to. The reinforcer is the ball going where the golfer intended it to go. With differential reinforcement, the successful swing will begin to occur at a higher percentage.

Malott, R. (2008) p. 131

Definition: PROCEDURE

The differential-punishment procedure
• Punishing one set of responses
• and withholding punishment of another set of responses.

(Malott, p. 135)

Ch. 7. DIFFERERNTIAL REINFORCEMENT & PUNISHMENT – BALLET- (A SPORTS PARALLEL)
(Note: Ballet, of course, is not considered a sport, but the training method used in this study may have some use in sports.) A student in a ballet class was not showing any improvement on three of the basic moves in ballet. The three moves are: dégagé, frappé, and the developpé. The method focused on topography, looking at: weight of body on balls of feet, the pelvis neither tucked in nor sticking out, hips and shoulders horizontal, heel of the front foot between the first and second joint of the big toe of the back foot, little toe is the first part of the foot to come off the floor, side of the big toe being the only contact point with the floor, and nothing else that would be left to chance. They did a baseline of the behavior, which involved the normal practice routine with the teacher lecturing and then going through the movements. They practiced the moves without music then with music then with her counting the beats with the music. They observed her training session and they saw that the student wasn’t that good at the moves. The new way they came up with to instruct involved the student getting praise if they did the moves right. If they did the steps wrong however, they would be told to freeze in that position. While the student was in the frozen position the teacher would point out what the error was, model the correct movement, then explain the components that were missing. The final step was that the teacher would physically guide her out of the incorrect position and into the correct one. Every time the teacher did this the student did it correctly when asked to immediately try it again. Each time the move was wrong the student had to stay in the frozen position during the entire time when the teacher explained all the components of the move. This made the student a better ballet dancer.

Fitterling, J. M. & Ayllon, T. (1983) pp. 345-368 (also summarized in Malott, R. (2008) pp. 136-137)

CHAPTER 8: Shaping

Definition: CONCEPT

Shaping with reinforcement
• The differential reinforcement of only the behavior
• that more and more closely resembles the terminal behavior.

(Malott, p. 146)

Definition: CONCEPT

Shaping with punishment
• The differential punishment of all behavior
• except ?that which more and more closely resembles the terminal behavior.

(Malott, p. 150)

Ch. 8. SHAPING – GOLF – (STROKE)
The golf ball stops closer and closer to the hole, as your stroke successively improves.

Malott, R. (2007). p. 153

Ch. 8. SHAPING – HOCKEY – (PLAYING THE MAN)
Despite the coach’s instructions, a young defensive player continually plays the puck instead of guarding the opponent. One can use shaping to coach guarding the opponent. Initially the coach praises the player in one-on-one drills for skating in the direction of the offensive player. In the next few drills the coach would then only verbally praise the player if they skated towards the opponent and made physical contact. Finally, the coach would only praise their player if they made enough contact to take the offensive player out of the play (terminal behavior).

Martin, G. (2007) p. 28

Ch. 8. SHAPING – TENNIS – (SERVE)
(Applies to right handed players; for left handed players simply reverse directions) The player must position their left foot so that it is at a 45-degree angle just behind the baseline and their right foot should be a comfortable distance behind the right foot parallel to the baseline. The swing should begin with the racket below the player’s waist perpendicular to the ground with the ball in the left hand and the racket in the right. As the player brings the racket back to swing, the other hand releases the ball straight into the air about three or four feet above the player’s head. The player then swings the racket over their head meeting the ball on its downward path just above their head. The ball should go over the net with as little space between the net as possible and land inside of the court lines. The coach would verbally reinforce the parts of the serve that were done correctly and say nothing to the parts that were not done correctly.

Malott, R. (2007) p. 126, plus our own interpretation

Ch. 8. SHAPING – TENNIS – (STROKES)
The principal of a junior high school threatened to cut the girls tennis team because they were not very good. A behavior analyst was asked to help the coach make the tennis team perform better. They selected three basic skills to improve: the forehand, the backhand, and the serve. They did a task analysis of the skills by breaking them down into a range of five to nine components. The coach chose the three worst beginners and they collected the baseline data for these players. The coach directed the players like she normally did with a five to ten minute lecture and demonstration of the components of each skill. She corrected them as they did the components wrong and mostly criticized them. She never complimented them on the correct components, just criticized the wrong ones. After getting the baseline, the behavior analyst told the coach to stop all criticism and only give praise for the correct components, and that she should not wait for them to do all the components right, but to praise any component that was right. The coach did a good job implementing the new procedure. All of the players improved at least 30% from what was observed during the baseline.

Malott, R. (2007). p. 127

CHAPTER 12: Discrimination

Definition: CONCEPT

Discriminative stimulus (SD)
• A stimulus in the presence of which
• a particular response will be reinforced or punished.

(Malott, p. 202)

Definition: CONCEPT

S-delta (SΔ)
• A stimulus in the presence of which
• a particular response will not be reinforced of punished.

(Malott, p. 202)

On p.219 of Malott (2008) he lists a number of different criteria for a relationship to be considered a discriminated contingency. In each of the examples that follow we will adhere to three parts of this list. They criteria are as follows:

­ SΔ test: If you have an SD then you must have an SΔ.
­ Response test: Τhe response is the same for both the SD and the SΔ.
­ Extinction/Recovery test: Τhe SΔ contingency is always either extinction or recovery.

Ch. 12. DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS (SD) – FOOTBALL – (WIDE RECIEVER AND DEFENSIVE BACK RELATIONSHIP)
The game of football in theory is simplistic; however the fact that there are 11 players from each team on the field at all times creates a number of different match ups between many different players. The match up that this analysis will look at is the one between the wide receiver (WR) and the defensive back (DB). The WR is an SD for the behaviors performed by the DB, and vice versa. This is a nice and clean example since these two players are often isolated from the rest of the players on the field. The job of the WR is to get away from the DB so that the quarter back (QB) can recognize this and throw them the ball. The job of the DB is to not let the WR get open and, if the ball is thrown to their WR, it is then their job to either knock the ball away or intercept the ball.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 12. DISCIMINATIVE STIMULUS (SD) – FOOTBALL – (NOT FALLING FOR A FAKE)
As the ball is snapped, the DB has their eyes on the receiver’s stomach. The direction of the receiver’s stomach is a discriminative stimulus for the direction of the WR’s run. It is best to use the receiver’s stomach as a discriminative stimulus instead of any other part of the body because this is a part of the body which cannot be quickly or deceptively moved with out taking the whole body in that direction.

­ SΔ test: The SΔ in this scenario would be the DB looking at any other part of the WR’s body other than their stomach.
­ Response test: The response, which would be moving in relation to the part of the WR’s body that is being watched, is the same for both the SD and the SΔ.
­ Extinction/Recovery test: The behavior is being extinguished in the presence of the SΔ because the DB will not be reinforced by a successful play or by coach’s praise when s/he does not focus on the WR’s stomach and gets tricked into going the wrong way.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 12. DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS (SD) – FOOTBALL – (THE HOOK)
The hook is a 5 to 10 yard pattern run by the receiver in order to pick up a short amount of yardage. The discriminative stimulus for this situation would be the DB playing a safe number of yards from the WR so that when the WR hooks, the DB does not have a chance to break on the ball.

­ SΔ test: The SΔ would be when the alignment of the DB is close enough for the DB to break up or intercept the hook
­ Response test: The response, which would be the QB throwing the ball to the WR, is the same for both the SD and the SΔ.
­ Extinction/Recovery test: The behavior is being extinguished in the presence of the SΔ because when the QB throws the ball to a WR that has a DB nearby, the QB will no longer get the reinforcement from the coaches or from a completed pass because the pass would be intercepted or broken up.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 12. DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS (SD) – FOOTBALL – (THE HOOK-AND-GO)
From the vantage point of the offensive play caller, the DB has been shorting their alignment depth to try and gain a pre-snap advantage on the hook pattern. The next time the QB runs the same hook route as s/he has in the past; but instead of the QB throwing the ball s/he simply fakes the throw. The WR spins out of the hook and continues down the field. The discriminative stimulus for this example would be when the DB starts to shorten their alignment and lines up closer to the WR prior to the snap.

­ SΔ test: The SΔ is when the DB waits back a number of yards and does not shorten their alignment.
­ Response test: The response, which would be the WR running the hook-and-go pattern, is the same for both the SD and the SΔ.
­ Extinction/Recovery test: The behavior is being extinguished in the presence of the SΔ when the WR runs a hook-and-go and the DB is playing a number of yards off, making it easy for the DB to cover the route and break up or intercept the pass.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 12. DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS (SD) – FOOTBALL – (THE SNAP COUNT: OFFENSE)
One of the main advantages that an offensive player has on a defensive player in the sport of football is that prior to each play, the offensive player knows exactly at what point s/he must sprint off of the line and begin the play. This is an advantage since the defensive player is not aware when the center will snap the ball to the quarterback and the offensive player may have that extra second to get into the position to successfully do the job on that play. In this case the offensive play is using the predetermined snap count as discriminative stimuli for when s/he can get that critical first step off of the line of scrimmage.

­ SΔ test: The SΔ is any other command given by the QB that is not the chosen command.
­ Response test: The response, which would be the offense snapping the ball and taking the first step, is the same for both the SD and the SΔ.
­ Extinction/Recovery test: The behavior is being extinguished in the presence of the SΔ when someone on the offense takes their first step before or “long” after the determined snap count and that player is no longer reinforced by a good jump or by their coach’s praise.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 12. DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS (SD) – FOOTBALL – (WATCHING THE BALL: DEFENSIVE LINE)
In a practice session the coach verbally praises the defensive lineman whenever s/he gets a good jump on the ball. It is critical that the defensive lineman gets a good jump on the ball in order to make sure that that offensive lineman does not gain crucial blocking position and amount of yards on him/her. The defensive lineman uses the visual cues of the ball moving (center to quarterback), as a discriminative stimulus as to when s/he can start the play.

­ SΔ test: The SΔ in this situation is the ball not moving toward the quarterback.
­ Response test: The response, which would be the defense taking the first step, is the same for both the SD and the SΔ.
­ Extinction/Recovery test: The behavior is being extinguished in the presence of the SΔ when the defensive player does not get a well-timed “jump” off of the ball and is no longer praised by their coach.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 12. DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS (SD) – BOXING- (DUCKING THE PUNCH)
A boxer leans to duck the punch thrown by their opponent due to the discriminative stimulus of the punch coming at their head. The boxer’s response to this stimulus is reinforced by the boxer getting away from the punch.

­ SΔ test: The SΔ in this situation is no punch being thrown by the opponent.
­ Response test: The response, which would be ducking, is the same for both the SD and the SΔ.
­ Extinction/Recovery test: The behavior is being extinguished in the presence of the SΔ is when ducking does not result in avoiding a punch.

Martin, G. (2007) p. 23

Ch. 12. DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS (SD) – BOXING – (PART II: COUNTER PUNCH)
After the boxer ducks the initial punch of their opponent, s/he then sees an opening in the opponent’s defense that is now available due to the initial punch. S/he uses this opening as a discriminative stimulus and delivers a counter punch to the opponent in that opening.

­ SΔ test: The SΔ in this example would be a lack of an opening in the opponent’s defense.
­ Response test: The response, which would be throwing a counter punch at the opponent, is the same for both the SD and the SΔ.
­ Extinction/Recovery test: The behavior is being extinguished in the presence of the SΔ when the boxer does not land an effective punch and does not hear the coach’s praise due to the lack of an opening in the opponent’s defense.

Martin, G. (2007) p. 23

Ch. 12. DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS (SD) – GOLF – (PUTTING ON A SLOPED GREEN)
When the green on the golf course is flat, the golfer aims and strikes the ball directly at the hole. When the golfer comes to a green and it is sloped, the golfer aims directly at the hole and the ball rolls to the side of the hole. The golfer learns that you can only aim the ball directly at the hole if the green is flat. The “break” results from the green slope. The discriminative stimulus in this situation is the correct read of the green’s slope in relation to where the ball is located. One must also take into account any other variables that might affect the roll of the ball in any particular situation such as a wet green after a rain, leaves and sticks that might be in the way, a fast green which was recently cut, etc.

­ SΔ test: The SΔ would be any other read of the green other then the correct one.
­ Response test: The response, which would be putting the ball at the hole, is the same for both the SD and the SΔ would be putting the ball at the hole.
­ Extinction/Recovery test: The behavior is being extinguished in the presence of the SΔ when the golfer misses the put and the golf coach does not praise the golfer for making a wrong read of the green.

Martin, G. (2007) p. 23 & 24

Ch. 12. DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS (SD) – FOOTBALL – (QUARTERBACK DECISION)
The quarterback drops back to pass. S/he sees that the defensive player is covering their primary receiver and that the alternate receiver is in an area where no defensive player can make a play on the ball. The QB recognizes the discriminative stimulus of the second receiver having no defensive player in the vicinity and passes it to him/her.

­ SΔ test: The SΔ in this example is any case where the WR has a defensive player close to him/her.
­ Response test: The response, which would be throwing the ball to a WR, is the same for both the SD and the SΔ.
­ Extinction/Recovery test: The behavior is being extinguished in the presence of the SΔ when the pass is not completed and the coach does not praise a throw to a covered receiver.

Martin, G. (2007) p. 23

Ch. 12. DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS (SD) – FOOTBALL – (QUARTERBACK DECISION PART II: THROW THE BALL OUT OF BOUNDS)
In a situation where the QB realizes that everyone is covered and defensive players are chasing him/her, s/he will throw the ball out of bounds instead of taking a loss of yards on a sack or risking an interception by throwing the ball to a covered WR. In order for the QB to throw the ball away with out committing an “intentional grounding” penalty s/he must be outside of the tackle box (a five yard width of the offensive line) and then throw the ball away. It is this issue of being out of the tackle box which is the discriminative stimulus for the QB to throw the ball away.

­ SΔ test: The SΔ for this example would be the QB remaining inside of the tackle box.
­ Response test: The response, which would be throwing the ball out of bounds, is the same for both the SD and the SΔ.
­ Extinction/Recovery test: The behavior of the SΔ is being extinguished when the coach does not praise the throw out of bounds while the QB is still in the tackle box and when the QB still loses yards from a penalty.

OUR EXAMPLE

CHAPTER 15: Avoidance

Definition: CONCEPT

Avoidance contingency
• The immediate,
• response-contingent
• prevention of
• an aversive condition
• resulting in an increased frequency of that response.

(Malott, p. 256)

Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE – BASKETBALL – (CHARGING FOUL)
A defensive player in basketball falls backwards after colliding with the player driving to the basket. The defensive player escaped the appearance of committing a foul in front of the official by showing that they were standing still. She/he avoids having a blocking foul called, and the player driving to the basket picked up a charge foul.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE – FOOTBALL – (DRILLS)
A football player learns to work hard to avoid the coaches’ on-the-spot criticism.

Martin, G. (2007) p. 33

Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE – FOOTBALL – (RUNNER SIDESTEPING TO A NEW PATH)
If the running back realizes that their intended path is no longer clear s/he does a quick jump sideways and avoids the tackle.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE – FOOTBALL – (BLOCKING DOWNFIELD)
A tired receiver on the opposite side of the line that the play is going blocks a defensive back down-field even though the play is NOT coming to their side of the field to avoid the immediate verbal reprimand of the coaches for “loafing”.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE – FOOTBALL – (TACKLING POSTITION)
When tackling a runner, the tackler turns or positions the runner so that the tackler ends up on top or on the side instead of on the bottom of the stack of the runner. The tackler avoids the aversive condition of getting landed on by the player being tackled.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE – FOOTBALL – (QUARTER BACK SLIDE)
A quarterback will “slide” while running with the ball to avoid the physical pain and potential injury of an oncoming tackler.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE – GOLF – (STANCE)
A golfer learns to use his or her body to line up the shot correctly, thus avoid hitting the ball in the rough (aversive).

Martin, G. (2007) p. 33

Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE – HOCKEY- (GETTING HIT LESS)
A forward in hockey learns to keep their head up to see the defensive play and thus avoids getting hit.

Martin, G. (2007) p. 33

Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE – BOXING – (DUCKING A PUNCH)
The boxer ducks and moves to avoid a left hook thrown by the opponent.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE – BASEBALL – (DODGING A PITCH)
The batter moves out of the way (or avoids) an inside pitch when at bat.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE – BASEBALL – (PITCHING AROUND A BATTER)
Pitching the other team’s slugger an intentional walk knowing that they have been very good against you in the past thus preventing him/her from hitting a home run.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE – BASEBALL – (BACKING A BATTER OFF)
By pitching inside to the batter, the pitcher can back the batter off the plate. This prevents the batter from reaching the outside of the plate so that the pitcher can use an outside breaking ball.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE – BASKETBALL – (DRIVE TO THE BASKET)
A player drives to the basket where a defensive player has the right angle and body position to block the shot. All of the stimuli is present for a blocked shot, but the player avoids the blocked shot by coming up on the other side of the basket and then switching hands to make the shot.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE – FOOTBALL – (QB AVOIDING A SACK)
A scrambling QB avoids a rushing lineman’s crushing tackle by a pump fake that gets the lineman “up in the air” and allows time for the QB to run away.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE – FOOTBALL – (RUNNING BACK STIFF ARM)
A running back gives a defensive player a solid stiff arm to avoid the tackle.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE – FOOTBALL – (BALL CARIER)
A good fake to the right and going left avoids a hard hit by the tackler.

OUR EXAMPLE

CHAPTER 20: Behavioral Chains

Definition: CONCEPT

Behavioral chain
• A sequence of stimuli and responses.
• Each response produces a stimulus that
• reinforces the preceding response
• and is an SD or operandum
• for the following response.

(Malott, p. 323)

Definition: CONCEPT

Forward chaining
• The establishment of the first link in a behavioral chain,
• with the addition of successive links,
• until the final link is acquired.

(Malott, p. 326)

Ch. 20. BEHAVIORAL CHAINS – GOLF – (PRE-PUTT ROUTINE)
As a golfer approaches a putt there is a correlation between the consistencies of his/her pre-put routine and the number of putts made. Tiger Wood’s has a pre-putt routine that constantly takes around 18 seconds and he is one of the best putters on the PGA tour. One can use a simple four-step chaining procedure to improve their putting:

1. While standing behind the ball the golfer will stare at the spot they are aiming at, take two practice strokes, and visualize the ball rolling in the hole.
2. The golfer then moves beside the ball, places his putter head behind the ball, and adjusted it so that he/she is aiming at the desired spot.
3. The golfer then moves his/her feet parallel to the putting line and grips the putter the way that is most comfortable to him/her.
4. The golfer then looks at the ball, looks at the hole, and then strokes the putt into the hole.

Martin, G. (2007) p. 10
Ch. 20. FORWARD CHAINING – FOOTBALL – (THE TACKLE)
In the following example the same event may be listed twice, serving as both the reinforcer (Sr+) for the preceding response and as the SD for the following response. The list details the events of each bubble in the diagram that follows it. Here is a forward chain involving a defensive player tackling an offensive ball carrier:

1. The first SD for the defensive player is the offensive player running with the ball.
2. The behavior is for the tackler to run towards the ball carrier.
3-4. The secondary reinforcer and SD are to be two yards away from ball carrier. (Dual function)
5. The behavior of the defensive player is then to lower his center of gravity or “drop his hips”, so that he has enough leverage and the offensive player can not run him over or fake him out. Even though the tackler must lower his hips and slow down moments before he attempts to make the tackle; he also must maintain forward momentum so that he does not get run over by the ball carrier.
6-7. The secondary reinforcer and SD are the physical contact of shoulder pad and helmet on the opposing player. (Dual function)
8. The behavior is then for the defensive player to drive up with his hips and run his feet. The tackler does this while simultaneously wrapping his arms around the offensive player.
9-10. The secondary reinforcer and SD are then feeling the offensive player moving backward and towards the ground. (Dual function)
11. The terminal behavior is the defensive player tackling the offensive player to the ground.
12. The secondary reinforcer is then the praise of the coaches.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 20. FORWARD CHAINING – BASKETBALL – (2-PERSON)
Here is a two-person chain involving an offensive player “A” and a defensive player “B”. We diagrammed only the most simple of examples for illustrative purposes. The arrows indicate the sequence of stimuli and responses between the offense and defense. Please note that the right side for “A” is the left side for “B” and vice versa.

In a slightly more complicated version of the example, another defender would pick up the offensive player to prevent a clear lane to the hoop. Then, here is how the chain would end:

OUR EXAMPLE

CHAPTERS 22, 23, & 24: Rule Governed Behavior

Definition: CONCEPTS

Rule
• A description of a behavioral contingency.

Rule control
• The statement of a rule
• controls the response
• described in that rule.

(Malott, p. 364)

Definition: CONCEPT

Rule-governed analog to a behavioral contingency
• A change in the frequency of a response
• because of a rule describing the contingency.

(Malott, p. 368)

Definition: CONCEPT

Avoidance-of-loss contingency
• The immediate,
• response-contingent
• prevention of loss
• of a reinforcer
• resulting in an increased frequency of that response.

(Malott, p. 259)

In the following illustrations, it may be worthwhile to think of instances where feedback and verbal praise may be given immediately following a particular response. These instances would be useful in showing how analogs can supplement the use of reinforcement.

Ch. 22, 23, & 24. RULE-GOVERNED ANALOG TO AVOIDANCE-OF-LOSS – BASKETBALL – (PRACTICE DRILLS)
A junior high school basketball coach was concerned with the fact that the players had poor performance and complained during their skill practices. The coach came up with a system, which was earning points for doing lay-ups, jump-shooting, free throws and encouraging fellow teammates during the drills. They would lose points, however, if they didn’t do the drill as if it were a game situation or if they complained at any time during the practice. Student volunteers would record all the points that were gained and lost throughout the practices. At the end of each practice, the coach would provide the team with feedback about their individual totals. Those that reached a determined point value would get their name posted outside of the gym and would also receive an award at the end of the season banquet. The coach praised the players that had received a certain amount of points at that particular practice and he announced how much the players improved from the practice before.

Siedentop, D. (1980) pp. 49-71 (also summarized in Martin, G. (2007) p. 95)

Ch. 22, 23, & 24. RULE GOVERNED ANALOG TO AVOIDANCE-OF-LOSS – FIGURE SKATING – (STAYING ON TASK)
The coach of a figure skating club was having trouble keeping her skaters on task during their practices. She wanted her students to practice the parts of their routines that they had the most trouble with; however the students would do everything but what they were supposed to do. She decided to implement a self-monitoring feedback system to correct the behavior of her skaters. She made a check list of all the parts of the routines they were to practice. She had other colleagues watch and record the next few practice sessions in order to gather baseline data. After getting the information she needed, she made a chart for each of the skaters. She explained to them that they had to do the first three parts of the routine then check them off. Then do the next three parts and continue this until all the parts are checked off. The coach graphed their progress so the girls could see it very clearly. After practice sessions that used the graphing system, all of the girls had improved and they kept their off task time down.

Hume, K. M., Martin, G. L., Gonzalez, P., Cracklen, C., & Genthon, S. (1985) pp. 333-345 (also summarized in Martin, G. and Osborne, J. G. (1989) pp. 89-91)

Ch. 22, 23, & 24. RULE GOVERNED ANALOG TO AVOIDANCE-OF-LOSS – SWIMMING – (PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT)
The coach of the swim team wanted the team to improve their ability to make underwater racing turns. In spite of all the prompts given during practice, the swimmers would swim to one end of the pool, touch the wall with their hand, and swim back without executing a proper turn. The swimmers were also asked to swim a full set (4-8 laps of a 25 meter pool) without stopping. When observed, most of the swimmers would touch down in the middle of the set, adjust their goggles, or “mess around” with other swimmers. The coach wanted to change the two problem behaviors: not executing a proper turn and not swimming the full set. She observed the swimmers for the next few practices to get a baseline. She then told the swimmers when they were not completing the turns properly or when they didn’t perform the full set. She then told her team that if she saw improvement in their two problem areas then, they would be able to have a fun relay race at the end of practice. The swimmers easily met the goals she set, which earned everyone the relay race.

Cracklen, C. and Martin, G. (1983) pp. 29-32 (also summarized in Martin, G. (2007) p. 108)

Ch. 22, 23, & 24. RULE GOVERNED ANALOG TO AVOIDANCE-OF-LOSS – SWIMMING- PRACTICE (STAYING ON TASK)
The swimmers on the swim team had dry land training practices for 20 minutes every time they practiced. The coach noticed that during this part of practice the team had trouble staying on task. He observed them to see how much time was wasted not practicing to get a baseline. He asked the swimmers to tell him what their favorite type of music is and told them that if they stayed focused and on task during this practice, he would play the music for them at the next practice (24 hour delay). Since everyone liked the same type of music, it was a unanimous decision. After implementing the new plan, the swimmers showed an immediate increase of staying on task. This resulted in the music being played at the next practice.

Hume, K. M. and Crossman, J. (1992) pp.665-670 [also summarized in Martin, G. (2007) p. 174]

Ch. 22, 23, & 24. RULE GOVERNED ANALOG TO AVOIDANCE-OF-LOSS – (PLAY LEARNING THROUGH TASK ANALYSIS)
The coach is looking to improve football skills on the Pop Warner football team, so with the help of a behavior analyst they do a task analysis to decide on the behaviors that they are going to reinforce. They decide that they are going to focus on three plays: the option play, the power sweep, and the off-tackle counter play. The behavior analyst breaks down each play into five individual parts. The coach then introduced the play to the team and taught them the first part of the play. After the team got the first part right, he would give the team verbal reinforcement and move on to the second part of the play. If the boys didn’t understand any part of the play, then the coach would take extra time to explain that part to them. Once the team learned all of the parts of the chain (see Ch. 20), the coach would deliver reinforcement only when the play was preformed completely and correctly. At practice after each game, the coach would provide feedback and give praise for plays that were done correctly during the previous game. The coach started doing this at the beginning of the season and by the time the season ended, there was improvement.

Listed below is an example of the task analysis breakdown of the 5 behavioral components of the option play.

1. The center-quarterback hand off.
2. The quarterback drops back three steps.
3. The quarterback fakes the hand off.
4. The halfback charges forward towards the middle.
5. The quarterback passes it to the number one receiver.

Komaki, J. and Barnett, F.T. (1977) pp. 657-664 (also summarized in Malott, R., 2008, pp. 377-378)

Ch. 22, 23, & 24. RULE GOVERNED ANALOG TO AVOIDANCE-OF-LOSS – FOOTBALL- (WIDE RECEIVER PERFORMANCE)
A college football team’s wider receivers needed to improvement their blocking, running of pass routes, and their releases off the line of scrimmage. The interventions included posting the percentage correct of skill performance on the locker room door, implementing a 90% correct performance goal, and providing verbal feedback from the coach during practice. One of these interventions, or any combination of them was introduced at different times. Each intervention worked, with performance improving the most when all three were combined.

Smith, S.L., & Ward, P. (2006) as cited by Wyatt (2009)

Ch. 22, 23, & 24. RULE GOVERNED ANALOG TO AVOIDANCE-OF-LOSS – VARIETY OF SPORTS
Multiple Layers of Reinforcement may be available at times. Below is a list of a variety of possible reinforcers available.

a. Pro Sports Partial List:
Big paycheck & bonus, leader of individual performance statistics for the season, free agency offers from other teams, offered endorsement deals, performance clauses in a contract , playing in games, winning the championship, named team captain, breaking a record, selected as an All-Star, asked for TV and press coverage, named MVP or other title (best defensive player, rookie of the year, etc.) of the sport, named player of the week, chosen for the pre or post game interview, picture in the paper for outstanding play, the cover of a national magazine, on the newest video game, attention/praise from everyone (coaches, family, friends, players, fans, and the media), sought after for autographs, attention in public.

b. College Sports Partial List:
Continue to keep your college scholarship, to be called an All-American, to get scouts to talk to you for possible professional contract, winning the national championship, to get boosters to donate more money, to win an award for your performance, national coverage, getting out of a tough practice, named team captain, offered endorsement deal after college, breaking a record, named MVP or other title (best defensive player, freshman of the year, etc.) of the sport, named player of the week, leader of individual performance statistics for the season, offered the pre or post game interview, a picture in the paper for an amazing play, the cover of a national magazine, getting attention/praise from everyone (coaches, family, friends, players, fans, and the media), getting a pep rally, listed as a role player, sought after for autographs, recognized in public.

c. High School Sports Partial List:
To get college recruits to notice you and be offered a scholarship, to be called All-Conference and All-American, to letter in the sport, to win the state championship, to earn an award for your performance, being in the newspaper, named team captain, breaking a record, named MVP or other title (best defensive player, rookie of the year, etc.) of the sport, named player of the week, leader of individual performance statistics for the season, offered the pre or post game interview because of performance, a picture in the paper for an excellent play, getting attention/praise from everyone (coaches, family, friends, players, fans, and the media), starring a pep rally, being called a role player for performance.

Ch. 22, 23, & 24. RULE GOVERNED ANALOG TO AVOIDANCE (OF AN AVERSIVE CONDITION) – ALL SPORTS – (COACH’S CRITICIZISM)
If the coach yells, criticizes, or ridicules their athletes, their athletes will find the coach aversive and avoid him/her or, in pro sports, ask to be traded. If the coach’s tactics become too aversive then the athletes might just quit the sport all together to avoid being yelled at, criticized, or ridiculed.

Martin, G. (2007) p. 33

Ch. 22, 23, & 24. RULE GOVERNED ANALOG TO AVOIDANCE (OF AN AVERSIVE CONDITION) – ALL SPORTS – (FAILURE)
A potential sports player may avoid sports altogether in order to prevent the aversive condition of poor performance or being judged as a failure.

Norton, P., Burns, P., Hope, D., & Fowler, B. (2000) as cited by Oxley (2009)

Ch. 22, 23, & 24. RULE GOVERNED ANALOG TO AVOIDANCE (OF AN AVERSIVE CONDITION) – BOXING – (FORFEITTING)
The boxer’s manager throws in the towel (quits) to prevent the boxer from getting beat up more, which would hurt the manager’s record.

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 22, 23, & 24. RULE GOVERNED ANALOG TO PUNISHMENT – VARIETY OF SPORTS (ENVIRONMENTAL EVENTS)

a. Pro Sports Partial List:
Salary less, endorsement contract cancelled, bench time, assigned to minor league or practice team

b. College Sports Partial List:
Scholarship cancelled, criticism of coach

c. High School Sports Partial List:
Coach criticism, family critics

OUR EXAMPLE

Ch. 22, 23, & 24. RULE GOVERNED ANALOG TO EXTINCTION – QUITTING A SPORT – (VARIOUS LEVELS)

a. Extinction in Pro Sports:
The player may no longer get the salary they once had, loss of endorsements, and loss of any other reinforcing repertoire.

b. Extinction in College and High School Sports:
Loss of a scholarship, loss of playing time, failure to make a first team

OUR EXAMPLE

II. SPORTS – BEHAVIORS

ALL SPORTS ¬ (GENERAL DISCUSSION) – Ch 5. PENALTY
Malott, R. (2008) pp. 83 & 88

ALL SPORTS ¬ (POOR PLAY) – Ch 5. PENALTY- TIME OUT
Martin, G. (2007) p. 31

ALL SPORTS – QUITING A SPORT – (VARIOUS LEVELS) – Ch. 6. EXTINCTION
OUR EXAMPLE

ALL SPORTS – QUITING A SPORT – (VARIOUS LEVELS) – Ch. 22, 23, & 24. RULE GOVERNED ANALOG TO EXTINCTION
OUR EXAMPLE

ALL SPORTS – (COACH¹S CRITICIZISM) – Ch. 22, 23, & 24. RULE GOVERNED ANALOG TO AVOIDANCE (OF AN AVERSIVE CONDITION)
Martin, G. (2007) p. 33

ALL SPORTS – (FAILURE) – Ch. 22, 23, & 24. RULE GOVERNED ANALOG TO AVOIDANCE (OF AN AVERSIVE CONDITION)
Norton, P., Burns, P., Hope, D., & Fowler, B. (2000) as cited by Oxley (2009) pp. 1-2

BALLET- EXAMPLE A METHOD FOR SPORTS – Ch 7. DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT &PUNISHMENT
Fitterling, J. M. & Ayllon, T. (1983) pp. 345-368 (also summarized in
Malott, R. (2008) pp. 136-137)

BASKETBALL – (CHARGING FOUL) – Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE
OUR EXAMPLE
BASEBALL – FASTBALL PITCHER ¬ (LOSS OF FASTBALL) – Ch. 6 EXTINCTION
OUR EXAMPLE

BASEBALL – (STRIKING OUT) – Ch 5. PENALTY- TIMEOUT
OUR EXAMPLE

BASEKTBALL ¬ (FOULING OUT) – Ch 5. PENALTY- TIMEOUT
Malott, R. (2008)

BASKETBALL – (PRACTICE DRILLS) – Ch. 22, 23, & 24. RULE GOVERNED ANALOG TO AVOIDANCE-OF-LOSS
Siedentop, D. (1980) pp. 49-71 (also summarized in Martin, G. (2007) p. 95)

BASKETBALL – (DEFENSIVE EFFORT TO GET THE CALL) – Ch 3. ESCAPE
OUR EXAMPLE

BASKETBALL – (SCREEN) – Ch 3. ESCAPE
OUR EXAMPLE

BASKETBALL – (STOLEN BALL) – Ch 4. PUNISHMENT
OUR EXAMPLE

BASEBALL – (DUCKING A PITCH) – Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE
OUR EXAMPLE

BASEBALL – (PITCHING AROUND A BATTER) – Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE
OUR EXAMPLE

BASEBALL – (BACKING A BATTER OFF) – Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE
OUR EXAMPLE

BASKETBALL – (DRIVE TO THE BASKET) – Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE
OUR EXAMPLE

BOXING – (DUCKING A PUNCH) – Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE
OUR EXAMPLE

BOXING & WRESTLING – (ROLLING WITH THE PUNCH) – Ch 3. ESCAPE
OUR EXAMPLE

BOXING & WRESTLING ¬ (THROW ABSOBTION) – Ch 3. ESCAPE
OUR EXAMPLE

BOXING- (DUCKING THE PUNCH) – Ch. 12. DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS (SD)
Martin, G. (2007) p. 23

BOXING ¬ (PART II: COUNTER PUNCH) – Ch. 12. DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS (SD)
Martin, G. (2007) p. 23

BOXING (FORFEITTING) – Ch. 22, 23, & 24. RULE GOVERNED ANALOG TO AVOIDANCE (OF AN AVERSIVE CONDITION)
OUR EXAMPLE

FIGURE SKATING – (STAYING ON TASK) – Ch. 22, 23, & 24. RULE GOVERNED ANALOG TO AVOIDANCE-OF-LOSS
Hume, K. M., Martin, G. L., Gonzalez, P., Cracklen, C., & Genthon, S. (1985)
pp. 333-345 (also summarized in Martin, G. and Osborne, J. G. (1989) pp.
89-91)

FOOTBALL – (PLAY LEARNING THROUGH TASK ANALYSIS) – Ch. 22, 23, & 24. RULE GOVERNED ANALOG TO AVOIDANCE-OF-LOSS
Komaki, J. and Barnett, F.T. (1977) pp. 657-664 (also summarized in Malott,
R., 2008, pp. 377-378)

FOOOTBALL -¬ (KEEP LEGS MOVING) – Ch 3. ESCAPE
OUR EXAMPLE

FOOTBALL -¬ (GOING TO THE WEAKEST POINT) – Ch 3. ESCAPE
OUR EXAMPLE

FOOTBALL -¬ (PRE-SNAP DEFENSIVE AUDIBLE) – Ch 3. ESCAPE
OUR EXAMPLE

FOOTBALL – (OFFENSIVE VS. DEFENSIVE PLAYER) – Ch 3. ESCAPE
OUR EXAMPLE

FOOTBALL ¬- (WIDE RECIEVER AND DEFENSIVE BACK RELATIONSHIP) – Ch. 12.DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS (Sd)
OUR EXAMPLE

FOOTBALL -¬ (NOT FALLING FOR A FAKE) – Ch. 12. DISCIMINATIVE STIMULUS (Sd)
OUR EXAMPLE

FOOTBALL -¬ (THE HOOK) – Ch. 12. DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS (Sd)
OUR EXAMPLE

FOOTBALL -¬ (THE HOOK AND GO) – Ch. 12. DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS (Sd)
OUR EXAMPLE

FOOTBALL – (NOT FOLLOWNG BLOCKERS = LOSS OF YARDS) – Ch 4. PUNISHMENT
OUR EXAMPLE

FOOTBALL -¬ (THE SNAP COUNT: OFFENSE) – Ch. 12. DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS (Sd)
OUR EXAMPLE

FOOTBALL ¬- (WATCHING THE BALL: DEFFENSIVE LINE) – Ch. 12. DISCRIMINATIVESTIMULUS (Sd)
OUR EXAMPLE

FOOTBALL – (QUARTERBACK DECISION) – Ch. 12. DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS (Sd)
Martin, G. (2007) p. 23

FOOTBALL – (DRILLS) – Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE
Martin, G. (2007) p. 33

FOOTBALL – (RUNNER SIDESTEPING TO A NEW PATH) – Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE
OUR EXAMPLE

FOOTBALL – (BLOCKING DOWNFIELD) – Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE
OUR EXAMPLE

FOOTBALL – (TACKLING POSTITION) – Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE
OUR EXAMPLE

FOOTBALL -¬ (QUARTER BACK SLIDE) – Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE
OUR EXAMPLE

FOOTBALL -¬ (WIDE RECEIVER PERFORMANCE) – Ch. 22, 23, & 24. RULE GOVERNED ANALOG TO AVOIDANCE-OF-LOSS
Smith, S.L., & Ward, P. (2006) as cited by Wyatt (2009) p. 4

FOOTBALL ¬- (QUARTERBACK DECISION PART II: THROW THE BALL OUT OF BOUNDS) -Ch. 12. DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS (Sd)
OUR EXAMPLE

FOOTBALL – (QB AVOIDING A SACK) – Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE
OUR EXAMPLE

FOOTBALL – (RUNNING BACK STIFF ARM) – Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE
OUR EXAMPLE

FOOTBALL – (BALL CARRIER) – Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE
OUR EXAMPLE

FOOTBALL ¬ (THE TACKLE) – Ch. 20. FORWARD CHAINING
OUR EXAMPLE

GOLF ¬ (PRE-PUTT ROUTINE) – Ch. 20. BEHAVIORAL CHAINS
Martin, G. (2007) p. 10

GOLF (PUTTING ON A SLOPED GREEN) – Ch. 12. DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS (SD)
Martin, G. (2007) p. 23 & 24

GOLF – (TIGER WOOD¹S PUTT) – Ch 4. PUNISHMENT
Martin, G. (2007) p. 37

GOLF – (GRIP ON CLUB) – Ch. 1 & 2. POSTIVIE REINFORCEMENT
Martin, G. (2007) p. 18

GOLF ¬ (SWING) – Ch 7. DIFFERERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT
Malott, R. (2008) p. 131

GOLF – (STROKE) – Ch. 8. SHAPING
Malott, R. (2007). p. 153

GOLF – (STANCE) – Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE
Martin, G. (2007) p. 33

HOCKEY- (GETTING HIT LESS) – Ch. 15. AVOIDANCE
Martin, G. (2007) p. 33

HOCKEY – (LOSING THE PUCK) – Ch 4. PUNISHMENT
OUR EXAMPLE

HOCKEY- (SITTING IN THE PENALTY BOX) – Ch 5. PENALTY- TIMEOUT
Malott, R. (2008)

HOCKEY – (PLAYING THE MAN) – Ch. 8. SHAPING
Martin, G. (2007) p. 28

SWIMMING – (PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT) – Ch. 22, 23, & 24. RULE GOVERNED ANALOG TO AVOIDANCE-OF-LOSS
Cracklen, C. and Martin, G. (1983) pp. 29-32 (also summarized in Martin, G.
(2007) p. 108)

SWIMMING ¬ PRACTICE – (STAYING ON TASK) Ch. 22, 23, & 24. RULE GOVERNED ANALOG TO AVOIDANCE-OF-LOSS
Hume, K. M. and Crossman, J. (1992) pp.665-670 [also summarized in Martin, G. (2007) p. 174]

TENNIS ¬ (SERVE) – Ch. 8. SHAPING
Malott, R. (2007). p. 126 plus our own interpretation

TENNIS ¬ (STROKES) – Ch. 8. SHAPING
Malott, R. (2007). p. 127

VARIETY OF SPORTS – Ch. 1 & 2. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
OUR EXAMPLE

VARIETY OF SPORTS (ENVIRONMENTAL EVENTS) – Ch. 22, 23, & 24. RULE GOVERNED ANALOG TO PUNISHMENT
OUR EXAMPLE
III. THE TOUGHNESS QUESTION

At the time of writing the other sections of this Behavior Analysis and Sports material, a related question came up for discussion: How does one (most likely a child or young adult) in the natural habitat learn “roughness” or “toughness”?

A description of a “toughness” repertoire as we are using the term in this material:

1. A person works to minimize the amount of escape and avoidance with physical contact with the ground, physical contact with other people, and other contact with what are verbally referred to as painful situations. For example:

a. Hitting the ground (jump on ground) when it is called for during a game or practice

b. Physically fighting, with gusto, for a good position to rebound in basketball

c. Going for the puck even when you see you will be checked into the boards in hockey, catching a pass in football aware of the fact that you will be hit hard with a tackle after the catch, etc.

2. A person gets reinforcement as he/she continues participation in the activities even when the activities involve what is commonly termed “pain”. The player comes back for more:

a. Tackling and carrying the ball in football

b. Throwing/getting thrown in judo or wrestling

c. Checking/being checked into the boards in hockey, tough fight in boxing, etc.

Below we have listed are some considerations for the behavioral principles involved in learning toughness. Certainly, principles of behavior could be involved in many more ways than the brief list suggested here:

1. Adaptation: Toughness is LESS about adaptation and MORE about the consequences at the instant the behavior in question happens that generates the behavior that is called toughness. In this material we are going to look at games that children and young adults encounter in their natural habitat that put them in contact with physical aversive stimuli (see number 8 below for elaboration).

2. “Macho” Stuff: One behaves as called for in order to avoid or escape from being called “chicken” or a sissy by other kids, or even at times by adults. It may often be an aversive condition to cry or to appear “weak” in front of others. In many situations this may have more relevance for boys. The contingencies at the moment are more important than historical variables in witnessing a behavior. If one does NOT do the “tough” behavior, i.e. tackling the ball carrier, blocking the defender, boxing out the opponent for a rebound, they are looked upon by some as being “soft” or as lacking masculinity, i.e. they get aversive social consequences. One of the authors describes how his high school football coach played the “macho card” to get “macho” performance out of high school students. For example he might say, “You wear lace on your pants?” or “You’re a prima donna” or “Your twin sister?” or “You are a pansy” in order to get football performance from the players.

3. Peer Pressure: Peer pressure may cause one to do something that they may not otherwise do. Peer pressure may also make one say that a certain activity is fun.

4. Modeling and Slapstick: Slapstick comedy has been a long-time favorite of many and it often involves the hurting of someone so that others have something to laugh at. One may learn that being “tough” is fun. Modeling toughness is often encouraged by many people in our culture.

5. Neighborhood Environment: Living in a rough neighborhood environment is not part of the family or neighborhood history for many “tough” athletes.

6. Physical Abuse: People certainly are NOT tough even if they get beat up many times in their daily life.

7. Viewing Opponent as an Enemy: During a “golden” era for the Green Bay Packers, their star running back Jim Taylor stated in an interview that he viewed the opponent tacklers as enemies working to destroy him. He could only escape and avoid that aversive condition by destroying the would-be tackler.

8. Building “Toughness” Repertoire via Children Games and Activities: We have found it fun to develop a list of games, activities, events, etc. that generations of kids have done as part of their “natural habitat.” Some these activities are outright harmful and certainly are not recommended or encouraged. The kids’ environment often reinforces these activities as being tough. These games for some are just a part of growing up and the activities are not even thought of as part of toughness training.

Here are some natural habitats for kid activities that could be a part of building a toughness repertoire:

1. Red Rover: Teammates hold each other’s hands or arms and try to create an impenetrable wall through the tight bonds created at the arms. They then call out a member from the opposite side and the opponent tries to run through the wall. If the attempt is unsuccessful, then the player joins the other team. This game can be tough on arms and joints.

2. Dodgeball: The object of the game is to throw balls hard at the opposing team members to eliminate their players until none are left. It is encouraged to throw balls as hard as possible to score hits.

3. Dodgeball 2: One person has the ball, while all the rest of the players line up against a wall, facing the wall. There is a small set of lines enclosing the players against the wall and players couldn’t go out of the lines. There is very little room to move, so it is almost inevitable that players would get hit hard with the thrown ball.

4. King/Queen of the Hill: This game is played on a snow hill or a regular hill. One person tries to defend the top of the hill (or defend a spot) while everyone is trying to knock them down or throw them off to claim the title of “King/Queen of the Hill.”

5. Lava game: This game is played outside on playground equipment or indoors on top of furniture, with pieces of paper laid on the ground that are considered “safe” to step on. The ground or carpet is considered hot lava, and if you fall onto it you burn or lose the game. Pushing, pulling, bumping, shoving, and other such physical contact are the means to eliminate other players and to win.

6. Imitating pro wrestling: In backyard wrestling, neighbors would re-enact what they saw the night before on the pro-wrestling match. This can be very unsafe.

7. Dare-Devil Stuff (or just plain dangerous dares): There are various forms of this sort of activity where kids engage in behavior that has a high probability of causing physical harm or pain with skateboards, bikes, etc.

8. Paintball: Getting hit by a round paint ball being shot from a paintball gun hurts. It leaves bruises and welts and sometimes breaks the skin.

9. Crack the Egg (played on a trampoline): One person plays the ‘egg’ and bunches up really tight by tucking his/her legs into their chest and wrapping their arms around their tucked in legs. The others then begin bouncing on the trampoline to try to get the egg to bounce as well. The egg eventually cracks once they have let go of their legs.

10. Snowball Fights (all forms of throwing ‘hurtful” objects): Getting hit by hard-packed snow or chunks of ice could hurt. A bad scenario of this is getting a surprise hit in the back of the head during a surprise attack.

11. Apple Wars (All forms of throwing ‘hurtful” objects): This involves throwing small apples at each other in a kind of war situation. Getting hit hurts because the apples can be very hard.

12. Trick Skateboarding: Trying tricks on a skateboard can end up with the skateboarder taking nasty falls.

13. Tumbling, gymnastics, etc: Involves practice making contact with the ground. Using the correct method lessens the force of contact.

14. Scary Carnival Rides: Kids get social pressure to “enjoy” being jerked around or getting scared by the rides.

15. Piling On/Monkey Piles/Garbage Piles: This where kids jump on each other, forming a pile of humans.

16. Pushing Over: One kid sneaks up on all fours behind a standing kid, and the standing child is pushed back over (outright dangerous).

17. “Say Uncle,” “A Pinch to Grow an Inch,” Towel Snapping, and other such things to measure who can take the most pain

18. High fives or “friendship” slaps or punches that “hurt.” Even a simple game of tag can be played with “tags” that involve a hurtful slap, thus moving the game beyond simple tag.

19. Birthday Beat-Down: For someone’s X birthday they get punched or slapped X amount of times.

20. Crack the Whip: A line of children hold hands or hold onto each other’s hips to form a “train” and run or skate in the same direction. When the line is going fast, the line turns and the person at the end of the line or the train is “cracked” while the line or train “whips”.

21. Tough pillow fights or TV “Gladiator” types of activities

22. Arm wrestling, lifting weight, pushing-pulling each other, and other strength activities

23. Jumping off higher and higher places or broad jumping over distances with an aversive consequence for failure to jump far, or pain from the height of the jump

24. Tug of War with an aversive consequence for your side losing (e.g. mud puddle in middle)

25. Water Balloon Catch: It is wet and cold if the balloon breaks as you try to catch it. Throwing the balloon in a way that will cause it to break is encouraged.

26. Keep-away Games: One person is “it” and the others try to throw an object around while keeping it away from the one who is “it”.

27. Take-away Games: One person has an object and all is fair game while others chase them to try and get the object away from them.

28. Bumper Cars and Bumper Boats: Crashing into as hard as possible or jarring others is the game.

29. Musical Chairs: Fighting for an empty chair; can be hard-fought

30. Dunking tank activities are aversively cold and involve “tough” falls into the tank.

31. Last Person Standing Activities: The last person hanging from a monkey bar, lifting the most weight, bending under a bar or “limbo”, stretching a leg the farthest, etc.(falling to the ground is supposed to be fun)

32. Last one there is “it” or a “rotten egg”: When all means are permitted to prevent one from getting to the determined location or safe place

33. Snake-burns: Twisting another’s skin in opposite ways to produce a burning sensation from the stretching of the skin

34. Slap-game: Two people hold out both hands with their palms up. The person whose hands are on bottom is supposed to try to slap the top set of hands before they can be pulled away, which would result in a hard slap to the table.

35. Bloody Knuckles: Two people hold their fists together so each person’s knuckles are touching the other person’s knuckles. The goal is to lift one’s fist up and bring it crashing down upon the other person’s knuckles before they can pull them away.

36. Slap Bets: The winner of the bet gets to slap the loser of the bet as hard as they want as opposed to the exchange of money or other goods

37. Shotgun Blitz/Battle: When calling shotgun (front seat of the car), one can declare “Blitz” or “Battle”. Blitz means that whoever can get to the car first gets shotgun and Battle means whoever can get into the seat while getting the opposing party out of the seat by any means necessary gets shotgun.

38. Sack Races / Three-legged Races: Falling down is highly probable.

39. Making the biggest splash (or belly flop) in the water or sliding your body the farthest on ice

40. Tubing: In the water being pulled by a boat or down a snowy hill, tubing is about being knocked and bounced around.

41. Horse Fights: Two or more teams of two people with one person on the other’s shoulders would try to topple the opposing team. Usually played in water.

42. Spread the Eagle: A two or more person game where a tennis ball is thrown against a wall and the other player(s) have to try to catch the ball as it bounces back. If they fail to catch the ball then they must line up against the wall so that the player who threw the ball can hit them with the ball.

43. Tackle Ball/ Kill the Carrier: A person throws a ball and whoever catches it has to run to the goal without getting tackled.

44. Slug Bugs aka the Woody Game: Whenever a Volkswagen Bug (or a wood-paneled car) is spotted, the first person to shout “Slug bugs” (or “Woody”) gets to punch the person next to them.

45. Tether Ball: Smacking the tetherball as hard as possible will not only hurt your hand after awhile, but if you or your opponent gets hit by the ball you will be hurting as well.

IV. THE NEGATIVE ASPECTS OF BEING ATHLETICALLY TALENTED

As we wrote the other sections of “Behavior Analysis in Sports”, we found ourselves asking this question: What are some of the negative aspects of sports-related environments for the athlete and for society?

In addition to the societal value of sports, there are a number of harmful consequences that may arise through the interplay of various contingencies. Special treatment for athletes can take many forms; this section looks at problems that may result from some common events occurring in the lives of athletes.

We categorized the information into four sections:

1. Problems for student athletes
2. Problems for professional athletes
3. General problems for athletes
4. Problems for society

COLLEGIATE AND HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETES

1. GRADE GIVEN AS GIFT: One hears of an athlete given a passing grade in a class even though they have not achieved any mastery because a teacher doesn’t want that player to become ineligible to play. Some schools and professors feel that their university is only as good as its performance in the sporting arena; therefore, if a star athlete is performing well in their sport it translates into good grades being given for athletes.

2. ATHLETE IS HURT LATER IN THEIR ACADEMIC EFFORT: Related to number one, but another issue, a teacher may allow an athlete to get by in his or her class with special free points during the student’s early academic career. They may have problems later in their high school or college career dealing with other advanced classes that rely on skills that were supposed to be acquired in earlier classes.

3. TUTORIAL ABUSE: The athletic departments might hire tutors for students and force their poorly performing students to go to these tutors, but the athlete does not use the extra help. This could take tutor time from students that would otherwise use the help. One of the authors recalls a football player (later to play in the NFL) who, when being taught chapter content, stated that it was too much and asked if the tutor just had the test items and the answers for the test he was going to take.

4. CHEATING WITH HELP FROM OTHER STUDENTS: Other students may be willing to do assignments or class work for the athlete. They may even “feed” the athlete the answers, allowing them to pass a class they have not studied adequately to get a passing grade.

5. SEX: The “jersey chaser” (someone who chases another just because one is an athlete): Basically throws them self at the athlete. The athlete doesn’t learn the social behaviors usually associated with dating and how to treat potential friends or the opposite sex adequately.

PRO ATHLETES

1. SKILLS AT MANAGING BIG BUCKS: Good athletes are given a very large paycheck upon entering the pros. This player has not developed money management skills and the money may be squandered or may be a source of trouble.

2. FAME BANDWAGON: The allure of an athlete or his/her money may be enough for women/men to try to have a child with the athlete in hopes that they can get the athlete’s money.

3. FAMILY PRESSURE: Family members may also pressure athletes to give them financial help. An athlete may have parents, family, and friends that live off of him/her for money when he/she has a limited money management repertoire.

4. SLACK OFF: May slack after receiving the first big paycheck/contract thinking that they have made it already. The player’s “mis”behavior may lead to the player being cut for bad performance, rule violations, or lazy attitude (i.e. missing practice, late for meetings, no gusto, etc.)

5. PRESSURE TO DEAL WITH THE DISTRACTION THAT COMES WITH FAME AND MONEY: People asking for money, friends trying to get handouts, added pressure of having money. All of these involves a repertoire that the “new rich” may not be ready for.

6. EXPOSURE OF PERSONAL LIFE: The athlete is in the media all the time showing who he/she is dating and what he/she is doing outside of their sport. The media may make them look like they are irresponsible and out of control. The exposure and pressure may be “too much” for the athlete to handle. Seasoned athletes coming to New York teams report falling victim to this media attention more often when compared to other places.

BOTH PRO AND SCHOLAR ATHLETES

1. ILLEGAL ACTIVITY: The athlete may have bad behavior reinforced simply because of who they are and find it difficult to improve their behavior. He/she may start to believe that their behavior doesn’t matter because of their athletic skills. An athlete may be able to break the law with no consequences if law enforcement officers are fans of athletes. The athlete may be more likely to engage in illegal activity.

3. ATTRACTING TROUBLE: The athlete may find it difficult to stay out of trouble when going out. Due to their popularity, people may deliberately try to start a fight in the hopes that they will get something out of it (e.g. a huge lawsuit, being paid off, etc.)

4. BREAKING RULES: One never gets reprimanded when acting out in one’s youth because of athletic performance. One doesn’t learn what is right and wrong / how to behave. The athlete continues to break team rules, laws, or league rules. Suspensions and fines may follow.

5. TROUBLESOME FRIENDS: One doesn’t surround oneself with positive people and friends. Bad influences elicit bad behaviors from the athlete while at the same time reinforcing that bad behavior.

6. NOT HAVING TO WORK FOR THINGS: The athlete’s star status may allow him/her to receive things for free that others have to pay for. The fact that goods are so easy to get could lower their reinforcement value.

7. LEARNING HOW TO GET ALONG: Women/men may be so easy to come by that their loss may not hold much aversive value. The athlete may find it hard to compromise in a relationship.

8. PROBLEMS LATER IN LIFE: The specialized reinforcers and punishment shape an athlete’s behavior in a way that hurts them when they get older and are no longer a well-known athlete. Once the public forgets about them, they can no longer do many of the things they could before. They need to show personal skills they didn’t have to show as an athlete in order to get the things they had gotten freely before as a well-known athlete.

9. STEROIDS: An athlete may find that the reinforcement of steroids in the short term outweighs their aversive qualities and damages to the body in the long term.

10. MAKING INJURIES WORSE: An athlete may find the ability to play reinforcing enough to take cortisone injections to play through an injury. This may make the injury worse.

11. PLAYING THROUGH AN INJURY: The player may have an injury that they feel they must play through to avoid losing their spot on the team, salary, scholarship, etc.

12. RISKING FURTHER INJURY: An athlete may find the sport reinforcing enough to play, for example, after multiple concussions and do permanent damage to his brain.

13. WORSENING AN INJURY: A player may continue to play a few more years even though the everyday wear and tear on the body of a professional athlete may adversely affect their everyday life, such as a hindrance to their ability to walk.

14. NEGATIVE LABELS: An athlete is labeled selfish by the media for complaining about not getting the ball enough during a game.

15. SOCIAL REPRIMANDS: An athlete gets chewed out for their performance by coaches and teammates during the post game press conference. The fans boo the athlete because they made a few bad plays.

16. CORRUPTION: The athlete might be persuaded/bribed to ‘throw the game’ because of the high stakes someone has put on it. This would cause him/her to be banned for life if caught.

While going through his email one day in July 2009, one of the authors found an anonymous, humorous piece that raises an interesting issue so we copied it below. We thought it is relevant to the discussion of the content of this section.

Without baseline or control conditions one may erroneously attribute causes for behavior. The amount of media coverage given to the behavior of athletes has brought many of the athletes’ socially unacceptable activities to our hhhhattention, while at the same time ignoring the behavior of other societal figures. The joke below is a spin on this cultural phenomenon:

Is It the NBA or NFL?

36 have been accused of spousal abuse
7 have been arrested for fraud
19 have been accused of writing bad checks
117 have directly or indirectly bankrupted at least 2 businesses (with more businesses being added to the list daily)
3 have done time for assault
71 cannot get a credit card due to bad credit
14 have been arrested on drug-related charges
8 have been arrested for shoplifting
21 currently are defendants in lawsuits, and
84 have been arrested for drunk driving in the last year

Can you guess which organization this is? NFL or NBA?
None; it’s the 435 members of the United States Congress. The same group of Idiotat crank out hundreds of new laws each year designed to keep the rest of us in line.

The preceding joke is a fun illustration of how behaviors that are usually attributed only to certain groups (e.g. athletes) may be present among many different and sometimes unexpected groups of people in our culture.

V. REFERENCES
Buzas, H.P. & Ayllon, T. (1981). Differential Reinforcement in Coaching Tennis Skills. Behavior Modification, 5.

Cracklen, C. & Martin, G. L. (1983). Earning Fun with Correct Techniques. Swimming Technique, 20.

Fitterling, J. M. & Ayllon, T. (1983). Behavioral coaching in classical ballet. Behavior Modification, 7.

Hume, K.M., & Crossman, J. (1992). Musical reinforcement of practice behaviors among competitive swimmers, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25.

Hume, K. M., Martin G. L., Gonzalez, P., Cracklen, C., & Genthon, S. (1985). A self-monitoring feedback package for improving freestyle figure skating practice behaviors, Journal of Sport Psychology, 7.

Komaki, J. & Barnett, F. T. (1977). A behavioral approach to coaching football: Improving the play execution of offensive backfield on a youth football team. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10.

Malott, R. (2008). Principles of Behavior (6th edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Martin, G. (2007). Applied Sport Psychology: Practical Guidelines from Behavior Analysis (3rd edition).Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada: Sport Science Press.

Martin, G. & Osborne, J. G. (1989). Psychology, Adjustments, and Everyday Living. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Norton, P., Burns, P., Hope, D., & Fowler, B. (2000). Generalization of social anxiety to sporting and athletic situations: Gender, sports involvement and parental pressure. Depression and Anxiety, 12, 193-202

Oxley, D. (2009). How to Take the Fun Out of Sports. Behavior Analysis Digest, 21(1), 1-2.

Siedentop, D. (1980). The Management of Practice Behavior in Sport Psychology: An Analysis of Athletic Behavior. Ithaca, NY: Mouvement Publications.

Smith, S.L., & Ward, P. (2006). Behavioral interventions to improve performance in a collegiate football. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 39, 385-391.

Wyatt, J. (Ed.). (2009). If the Football Team Isn’t Good, Can Behavior Analysis Improve It? Behavior Analysis Digest, 21(1), 4.

ADDITIONAL READINGS (READINGS WE KNOW OF, BUT HAVEN’T DONE ANYTHING WITH YET)
Dowrick, P.W., & Dove, C. The use of self-modeling to improve the swimming performance of spina bifida children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1980, 13, 51-56.

Jackson, C.L. The effects of videotape and audiotape feedback upon the acquisition and retention of sport type motor skills. (Doctoral dissertation, E. Texas State University, 1973.) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1974, 34, 5689A.

Lehn, K. Property Rights, Risk-Bearing and Player Disability in Major League Baseball. Working Paper #64. St. Louis, MO, Washington University-Center For the Study of American Business, 1981.

Lord, R.G., & Hohenfeld, J.A. Longitudinal field assessment of equity effects on the performance of major league baseball players. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1979, 64, 19-26.

Luyben, P., Hansen, R., Hardy, J., Leonard, T., & Romero, J., Behavioral athletics: Improving shooting accuracy on a college varsity women’s soccer team. Paper presented at the meeting of the Association for Behavior Analysis, Dearborn, Michigan, May 1980.

McKenzie, T. L., & Rushall, B. S. Effects of self-recording on attendance and performance in a competitive swimming training environment. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1974, 7, 199-206

McKenzie, T.L. and Rushall, B.S. The neglect of reinforcement theory in physical education. CAPHER Journal, 1973, 39, 13-17.

Osborne, K., Rudrud, E., & Zezoney, F. Improved curveball hitting through the enhancement of visual cues. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1990, 23, 371-377.

Rushall, B.S. and Siedentop, D. The development and control of behavior in sports and physical education. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1972. —-(this was all there was on pg.608)- looked it up on the net and found (Behavior Modification, Vol. 2, No. 1, 25-40 (1978))

Rushall, B.S. and Pettinger, J. An evaluation of the effect of various reinforcers used as motivators in swimming. Research Quarterly, 1969, 40, 540-545.

Simek, T.C., & O’Brien, R.M. Total golf: A behavioral approach to lowering your score and getting more out of your game. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1981.